To master the hardest points of English, it helps to see sentences the way linguists do: as hierarchies of , each with a category (what it is) and a function (what it does).

Categories vs. functions

@L5.7cmL5.9cm@ Categories (form) & Functions (role)
noun phrase (NP): & subject, object, complement
verb phrase (VP): & predicate
adjective phrase (AdjP): & modifier, complement
adverb phrase (AdvP): & adjunct
prepositional phrase (PP): & modifier, adjunct, complement
clause (finite or non-finite) & subject, object, modifier, adjunct

The same category can serve many functions: in , the PP is the subject; in , it is an adjunct.

Tests for constituency

How do you know is a unit? It passes the classic tests:

  1. Substitution: replace with a pro-form —

  2. Movement: shift it as a block —

  3. Clefting:

  4. Question-answer:

  5. Coordination: conjoin with a like unit —

These tests settle real editorial questions, e.g. where a modifier attaches (see ambiguity, Chapter [ch:traps]).

The structure of the noun phrase

English NPs follow a strict template:

pre-determiner < determiner < ordinal < cardinal < adjectives (in the order of Chapter [ch:adjadv]) < noun modifiers < head < PP complements/modifiers < relative clause.

Noun + noun sequences () stack recursively; long stacks tax readers — prefer to chains.

The verb phrase and its auxiliaries

Auxiliaries occur in a fixed order:

modal \(<\) perfect \(<\) progressive \(<\) passive \(<\) main verb
(rare but grammatical — all four slots filled)

The first auxiliary is the : it carries tense, hosts negation (), and inverts in questions (). When no auxiliary is present, steps in as operator — the that runs through Chapters [ch:present] and [ch:questions].

Complements vs. adjuncts

A is selected and often required by the head; an is optional extra information:

  • (PP complement — demands a place: )

  • (adjunct — stands alone.)

  • Verbs dictate their complements (): . Valency errors are among the most persistent advanced mistakes: \(\to\) (or ).

Subordinate clauses by function

@L3.7cmL8.4cm@ Function & Examples
Subject clause &
Object clause &
Complement of adjective/noun &
Adverbial clause &
Relative clause & modifies a noun (Chapter [ch:relatives])

Heavy subject clauses are usually with dummy : — see Chapter [ch:infostructure].

The of an object clause can be omitted after common verbs (), but keep it (a) after less frequent verbs (), (b) when a phrase intervenes (), and (c) whenever omission invites misreading: momentarily misparses as object —

Exercises

Constituency tests Use at least two tests to decide whether the bracketed string is a constituent.

  1. She [gave the letter] to her lawyer.

  2. The jury found [the defendant guilty].

  3. He spoke [to the students in the hall]. (two readings!)

  4. soon became obvious.

Complement or adjunct? Say whether the bracketed phrase is a complement or an adjunct.

  1. They treated the guests [with great courtesy].

  2. They dealt [with the complaint].

  3. She became [a judge] [in 2019].

  4. He placed the vase [on the shelf] [this morning].

Valency repair Correct the complementation errors.

  1. The panel discussed about the merger for two hours.

  2. The kit comprises of ten components.

  3. She emphasized on the need for caution.

  4. We must prevent the disease to spread.

  5. The report provides readers useful comparisons.